complexity, Baer and Kaufman (2005) proposed the
Amusement Park Theoretical (APT) model, a hierarchical
framework that organizes creative potential into four
distinct levels: initial requirements (e.g., intelligence),
thematic areas, specific domains, and task-specific
microdomains. Particularly, linguistic creativity manifests
through the ability to generate novel concepts, either by
inventing new lexical items or by repurposing existing ones
(Zawada, 2006). This process demands high-level
cognitive effort, involving metacognitive reflection and the
reorganization of lexical-semantic relationships to produce
original meanings (Kenett et al., 2018; Estes & Ward,
2002). Within this domain, figurative language represents
the most cognitively demanding and complex expression of
creative linguistic production (Veale, 2006).
they lack widely shared meanings, they demand original
conceptual mapping rather than familiar recall. This
process needs breaking conventional thought patterns to
engage in higher-order, abstract conceptualization
(Dietrich, 2024). Consequently, novel metaphor generation
is viewed as a distinct verbal ability, serving as a more
robust indicator of creative potential than the simple
retrieval of conventional figurative language (Kasirer &
Mashal, 2018).
In addition, research indicates that the cognitive demands
for conventional and novel metaphor generation differ
significantly. While conventional metaphor production
relies primarily on vocabulary and established associations,
novel metaphor generation engages a more complex,
broader array of cognitive functions (Menashe et al., 2020).
Empirical evidence confirms this distinction: novel
metaphor generation is uniquely predicted by divergent
thinking, fluid intelligence, and executive control (Kasirer
& Mashal, 2018; Beaty & Silvia, 2013). Finally, producing
creative metaphors requires higher-order processes, such as
conceptual fluency and the ability to maintain flexible,
non-rigid semantic network structures (Benedek et al.,
2014; Li et al., 2021).
Metaphor generation represents
a
prototypical and
fundamental process within figurative language and is
widely regarded as one important manifestation of
linguistic creativity alongside other phenomena such as
humour and irony, which also rely on the flexible
manipulation of semantic and pragmatic constraints.
Indeed, scholars have argued that metaphors serve as the
primary materialization of creative thinking (Bergs, 2019).
Consequently, metaphor generation is considered as a
robust lens through which to examine linguistic creativity
and a reliable indicator of broader creative potential
(Benedek et al., 2014; Kasirer & Mashal, 2018; Menashe
et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2024). Metaphor generation and
processing rely on the cognitive capacity to map disparate
knowledge domains and identify structural similarities
It is known that secondary education is a critical window
for the development of figurative language, a process that
relies on complex metalinguistic awareness and abstract
reasoning (Levorato & Cacciari, 1995, 2002). During this
period, students transition from simple, perceptually based
metaphors to sophisticated psychological and relational
mappings (Nippold, 2016). This evolution is fundamentally
driven by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex and the
subsequent refinement of executive functions, which
enable adolescents to navigate increasingly complex
conceptual spaces (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006).
Beyond biological maturation, extensive reading acts as a
cornerstone for linguistic innovation. Because written
language is lexically richer than spontaneous speech
(Cunningham & Stanovich, 2001), reading provides the
essential exposure needed to decouple words from their
literal referents and explore non-literal meanings.
between seemingly unrelated concepts (Bowdle
&
Gentner, 2005). Each metaphor functions through the
interaction between a topic (the concept being described)
and a vehicle (the source domain providing the imagery),
facilitating the transfer of specific qualities from the latter
to the former. Operationally, metaphor generation involves
scanning semantic memory to select vehicles that capture a
topic’s abstract qualities, a process that needs the inhibition
of irrelevant or incompatible features (Bowdle & Gentner,
2005; Kasirer & Mashal, 2018).
A distinction can be made between conventional and novel
metaphors (DiStefano et al., 2025). Conventional
metaphors rely on the automatic retrieval of culturally
coded expressions, such as “life is a journey,” using
established conceptual mappings. Conversely, novel
metaphors require genuine linguistic creativity. Because
In 2022 PISA test measured both reading competence and
creative thinking (across four creative domains) in 15
years-olds. The creativity results varied significantly across
the four domains studied, both in terms of student
performance and the demographic gaps associated with
Orozco Gómez, P., & Martín Ezpeleta, A. (2026). Reading competence and linguistic creativity in secondary education. A cross-
sectional study. Investigaciones Sobre Lectura, 21(1), 99–126.
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